Figure 1 shows a visual representation of the transportation chain for the traditional retail model. The product begins at the manufacturer from where it is assumed to be shipped by heavy-duty truck to the wholesale warehouse. The product sits in the warehouse (for simplicity we assume only one warehouse, owned by the retailer) for a certain amount of time until the product is in demand by the retail store, and we assume in the base case that it is then trucked directly to the store, packaged in bulk. Later we include the possibility for shipment to a secondary warehouse belonging to the retailer (or an intermediate distribution warehousing facility) before it is shipped to the actual store. Individual consumers drive by car from their homes to the nearest retail store to pick up the product and then return home. Of course the consumer trip to the retail store could include multiple stops or purposes, and this is discussed below in the methods and data section.